9.5.2. Parking controls and charging do have some restraint potential. While parking controls may have some effect on vehicle ownership[37], the conventional aim, as a restraint policy, is to reduce car use by regulating/limiting parking space/capacity and by positive allocation of available parking space between different groups of user – usually seeking to deter long stay car commuting since travel-to-work car demand is the primary cause of peak hour congestion and results in high marginal social costs (each vehicle interferes significantly with the operation of others and there is the accumulated effects of air pollution and environmental degradation). However, parking as a restraint measure has weaknesses for at least the following reasons:
a) the control of parking affects only trips with a destination in the area subject to the parking controls. Used by itself, therefore, parking control may reduce travel to an area (typically city centre) but at the same time unless other measures are taken, the reduced congestion will benefit vehicles passing through the controlled area and is likely to result in increased "through" traffic flows which will absorb the released capacity;
b) the availability of drivers and chauffeurs in developing cities which means that cars do not have to park on a long stay basis; cars can remain on-street in charge of
drivers and/or can move frequently and thus escape parking charges or parking enforcement;
c) significant parts of the parking stock in many cities may not be in the control of the traffic management authority. Car parking which is publicly available and operated by the private sector can theoretically be influenced by the traffic authority by incorporating “restraint-level” parking charge rates within the license to operate the car park or, at the extreme, by closure of places. However, in developing cities, these are not easily enforced actions;
d) an even more difficult problem applies to “private non–residential” (PNR) parking which may be in the ownership of private sector companies and/or of central and local government agencies themselves around ministries and city government offices. For a parking policy to have real restraint effects, it is necessary to have control of, or at least influence over, this PNR parking. This has proved difficult in both developed and developing cities; issues and measures in relation to PNR include:
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minimum standards - in many cases the private sector building-related parking may have been constructed as a direct response to city parking standards for building permissions. There are many developing cities, even in city centres, where minimum rather than maximum parking standards are required and this minimum standard encourages car use and can permit lower-than-realistic parking charges; |
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"free" employee access to PNR parking - if parking spaces are provided as a “benefit” to employees then anyone with a free, and guaranteed, parking space provided at the place of work does not bear the full costs of their journey to work. Thus, some form of charging is justified. In developed cities, the parking can be treated as “benefit in kind’ on which tax on income is payable by drivers. This requires an efficient personal taxation system which may not apply in many developing cities. There are moves in some developed cities to impose a “work place parking levy” whereby an employer pays a (high) levy to the traffic authority for the each parking place on the premises or alternatively closes the space. The policy is being actively considered in the UK and is typically described[38] as “In the case of the workplace parking levy, the ……. (policy) ……will enable a levy to be charged on (i) all parking at categories of property where parking provision is predominantly for use by those at their workplace - such as parking at offices, factories, warehouses and educational establishments (where parking provided for students would be included); and (ii) parking for employees at buildings where employee parking is likely to be a minority of total on-site parking - such as parking at retail outlets, leisure centres and hospitals etc”. |
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control of PNR - “PNR” parking places can be closed if they are those under the control of central and local governments. Conceptually this is simple but practically it is difficult (“discrimination against public employees”, “no alternative transport system”, “cars needed throughout the day for work purposes”, “heads of departments need cars” etc). |
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