Urban Transport Strategy. Management in Developing Countries John A Cracknell, страница 77

b)  Control of use of vehicles by regulation  – controls on the use of vehicles may be achieved by:

♦            access controls to specific areas by regulation such as “odd-even” number plate bans

♦            physical barriers to movement to selected areas such a pedestrianised streets and environmental areas etc; and

♦            road space reallocation from inefficient users of road space (cars) to efficient users of road space (buses and public transport generally).

c)  Pricing – including

♦            measures to discourage vehicle ownership and use such as including vehicle license fees, fuel prices, etc; and congestion

♦            congestion charging through a range of schemes aimed at reducing car use in specific areas and at specific times including supplementary licensing, cordon pricing, road tolls etc;

d)  Incentives to efficient and/or "green" modes - including

♦           measures to improve public transport;

♦           measures to encourage walking and cycling;

♦            car pooling

e)  Planning ♦           Staggered work hours; and

♦            disincentives to travel through land use and development policies to reduce overall demand for travel.

9.4         Integrated Policy

9.4.1.      Need for planning - measures designed to satisfy one objective may conflict with others. For example, parking policies aimed at restraint of long term city centre parking may encourage increased volumes of through traffic by "releasing" road space and a scheme would require careful planning.  There can also be significant differences between the short and long run effects of some measures.  For example, city centre parking restraint

may provide short term relief but may in the long term encourage growth of new local centres remote from the city centre with their own congestion problems.  A package of measures needs careful planning to achieve a balance of objectives relating to the particular traffic characteristics of a city.

9.4.2.      Need for parallel improvements particularly public transport - Theoretical research^[36], indicates restraint measures alone will not meet urban transport and environmental objectives and that “combinations of car restraint and public transport improvement appear to work better than either in isolation, at least in their effect on travel to city centres”.  A coherent policy is likely to include a combination of measures - both disincentives to travel by inefficient modes and incentives to travel by efficient (public transport) modes.  It is widely accepted that both for public acceptability reasons and demand management measures should be implemented in parallel with public transport improvements including quality improvements to offer alternative transport to restrained car users.  This view is demonstrated in the few existing cases where direct pricing methods are employed (cordon or area congestion charges) - revenues from charging schemes have been earmarked for public transport improvements.

9.5          Parking controls for demand management

9.5.1.      Parking control and pricing is the most commonly applied demand management

measure in developed and developing cities.  At its most basic, in many developing cities, parking policy is limited to the control of the supply of on-street parking (usually simple parking prohibitions on main roads) to avoid obstruction to moving traffic and this approach has little effect on demand.  However, on-street parking controls, as good practice, should be part of a normal traffic management strategy and has been discussed in Chapter 3.