Talking About Stories. Theoretical Preliminaries. The Plan for Rendering the Story, страница 10

The expression of opinion in modern English depends to a considerable extent on the correct use of connecting words or phrases that help the reader or listener to understand what is being said. Such words or phrases may be used to show how an argument is organized, to prepare the reader for what is coming next or to convey the tone of what is being said.

A. Developing an Argument

1. Sequence

Most people develop an argument by making a series of points. This can be done numerically – first, second, third – but the following phrases are more commonly used:

Point 1: In the first place, To begin with, To start with, First of all.

For one thing is more conversational, and usually suggests that the speaker has not yet thought of all his reasons and listed them in his mind, so it is best to avoid it in writing.

Point 2: Secondly, In the second place.

These lead the reader or listener to expect further reasons, and should not be used unless more than two points are being made.

In addition to that tends to be used for the second and final reason.

Apart from that, Moreover (formal) and What is more (conversational) indicate second reasons of a rather different kind, but tending towards the same conclusion:

e.g. Fewer people are going on holiday in the Mediterranean this year. In the first place, the economic situation is serious, and many are staying at home. Apart from that, an increasing number of people are being attracted to more distant places.

Besides is used for a second and normally conclusive, reason that is so strong that it almost makes the first reason irrelevant:

e.g. I don’t really think we can afford to go there again for our holiday this year. Besides, I am tired of the place – I don’t want to go there.

Final Point: Finally, Lastly.

Above all indicates that the last point is the most important. Conclusion (not necessarily the last point in a list, but as the beginning of the last paragraph, to show that the argument is coming to an end, or you are summarizing it).

In conclusion, To sum up

These are markers indicating that you have reached this stage of the argument.

Taking everything into account, All things considered, All in all.

These indicate that you are summarizing all the points made and reaching a conclusion, whether or not the points listed agree.

In brief, In short, In a word (the last two more conversational).

These indicate that you are going to summarize the points made briefly, and should only be used if you are brief.

2 Examples

When you wish to give an example of what you mean in making a point, use:

For example, For instance.

3 Contrast

In some cases, you may want to conduct your argument not by making a list of points that all point in the same direction but by contrasting the opinions of one group with another. This can be done very simply by writing but instead of and or by using concession clauses with although, in spite of etc.

In written argument, the most common connecters to indicate a point that to some extent contradicts or limits a previous statement are:

However, Nevertheless, All the same, At the same time

After all is used to indicate a strong argument against the previous point that appears not to have been considered:

e.g. I am surprised you haven’t invited Joan to go on holiday with you. After all, she is your sister.

On the other hand is used in balanced arguments (see below) but often appears alone simply to indicate an alternative point of view:

e.g. Most people seem to think that the spread of tourism in the area has done a lot of harm. On the other hand, it has cured the unemployment problem here.

In contrast is used to indicate that the alternative point of view that follows is in direct contrast to what has gone before:

e.g. Ecologists are very critical of the spread of tourism in the area. In contrast, hotel managers are all in favour of it.

4 Balance

The connecters used for contrast tend to favour the second point raised at the expense of the first. When presenting both sides of an argument as equal, it is best to use On the one hand, … and On the other hand.