For the design of cities, compact, dense land use patterns, such as those found in Amsterdam, should be encouraged in a framework. Beatley notes that “density and compactness directly translate into much lower energy use, per capita, and lower carbon emissions, air and water pollution, and other resource demands compared with less dense, less compact cities” (2004). Such compactness will promote sustainability; compact designs are essentially promoted by infrastructure and transportation investments that encourage a “tight urban form” (Beatley, 2004). An incentive to local businesses would be for the government to offer tax breaks in relation to the amount of travel reimbursement given to the employees. Businesses and developers, rather than looking for new undeveloped land for their next office establishment, would consider the downtown area as the place to upgrade. Regarding land use, public transport uses urban space more efficiently than roadways. For example, subways usually move underground and thus create opportunities for buildings overhead. Data per passenger kilometer traveled indicate that buses use up to 30 times less area than cars when parking and road use are added (Vivier, 1999). Even if projected increases in fuel efficiency are accounted for, the ecological footprint of transportation is expected to increase over time because of increases in annual vehicular kilometers of travel (Chi and Stone, 2005).
It is important to note which regions are contributing the most emissions. Contemporary data from the World Resources Institute (1999) specify that the highest per capita carbon emissions are found in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Saudi Arabia. Conversely, the majority of countries in Africa, Asia, and South America depict low per capita carbon emissions (World Resources Institute, 1999). The benefits of promoting public transport in developing countries are palpable; encouraging public transport prevents the need to build extensive roadways at high environmental costs. Developed nations also have an opportunity to help fund public transport systems in the developing world to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.
As for other solutions, public policy instruments to manage growth and protect open space could help address sustainable transportation needs. These instruments include outright public ownership, regulation, and incentives and disincentives. It is important to note the importance of “vertical coordination between policies at different governmental levels, and horizontal coordination among neighboring communities, regions, and states” (Bengston, 2004). Lord et al. (2003) note the importance of community involvement. For example, they state that “providing a city’s residents with a concrete sense of their collective contribution to the problem…may be a crucial first step toward local advocacy.” They conclude with the hope that urban residents will unite to “reach across political and socio-economic divides to develop a cohesive vision of a metropolitan area” (Lord et al., 2003). Ultimately, it may be preferable to consult with a combination of stakeholders when developing a sustainable transportation framework; applying successful public policies in the complex field of urban growth management would be hindered without input from various stakeholder agencies.
There are some financial strategies that could help reduce traffic congestion. In the case of the
United States, the “political support for sprawl comes from lobbies for transportation” (Bare, 2003). These powerful groups “push favorable legislation through, using direct and indirect political influence, and are not likely to give up the prosperity of their industries by supporting anti-sprawl initiatives” (Bare, 2004). However, the federal government can help “citizens to realize the full costs of their choices” by having citizens bear “the full costs of individual automotive use” (Bare, 2003). The government might promote the payment of full costs via taxation and other financial strategies. These include car sharing, road pricing, and carbon taxes (Beatley, 2004). Some of these concepts have been successfully applied in several countries. For any car-loving culture, such as the District of Columbia’s, perhaps car sharing (i.e., Zipcar) and road pricing are some potential steps that would allow the freedom offered by cars within more manageable limits.
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